微塑料对蜜蜂健康与行为的影响

顾小雨,  安童,  代平礼,  刘永军

顾小雨, 安童, 代平礼, 等. 微塑料对蜜蜂健康与行为的影响 [J]. 环境昆虫学报, 2026, 48(4): 1075-1087. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0858.2026.04.10
引用本文: 顾小雨, 安童, 代平礼, 等. 微塑料对蜜蜂健康与行为的影响 [J]. 环境昆虫学报, 2026, 48(4): 1075-1087. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0858.2026.04.10
GU Xiao-Yu, AN Tong, DAI Ping-Li, et al. Impacts of microplastics exposure on the health and behavior of bees [J]. Journal of Environmental Entomology, 2026, 48(4): 1075-1087. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0858.2026.04.10
Citation: GU Xiao-Yu, AN Tong, DAI Ping-Li, et al. Impacts of microplastics exposure on the health and behavior of bees [J]. Journal of Environmental Entomology, 2026, 48(4): 1075-1087. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0858.2026.04.10

微塑料对蜜蜂健康与行为的影响

doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0858.2026.04.10
基金项目: 

中国农业科学院创新工程 CAAS-ASTIP-2024-IAR

详细信息
    作者简介:

    顾小雨,女,硕士研究生,研究方向为蜜蜂毒理学,E-mail:gxy20220125@163.com

    通讯作者 Author for correspondence:

    刘永军,女,博士,研究员,研究方向为蜜蜂毒理学,E-mail:liuyongjun@caas.cn

  • 中图分类号: Q968.1

    文献标识码: A

    文章编号: 1674-0858(2026)04-1075-13

Impacts of microplastics exposure on the health and behavior of bees

  • 摘要:

    微塑料(Microplastics,MPs)作为一种新型环境污染物,因其环境持久性强、表面吸附能力高,对生态系统健康构成潜在威胁。蜜蜂作为重要的授粉昆虫,在农业生产和生态系统稳定中发挥着重要作用,其对微塑料的暴露风险亟需系统评估。本文系统梳理了微塑料在蜂群中的潜在传播途径,重点综述其对蜜蜂生理健康的影响,包括对存活率、发育过程、肠道组织结构、肠道微生物组成及免疫功能的干扰机制;同时探讨了微塑料对蜜蜂取食行为和认知行为的潜在影响。进一步汇总了微塑料与常见农药、其他污染物及病原体的联合毒性效应,指出微塑料可能通过多途径、多机制对蜜蜂个体及蜂群健康造成复合毒性风险。最后,分析了当前研究中的关键问题与挑战,并提出未来应加强微塑料生态毒理机制研究、暴露风险评估及其在生态系统层面影响的综合评估。本文可为蜜蜂健康保护及微塑料环境风险评估提供理论依据与科学参考。

     

    Abstract:

    Microplastics (MPs), as emerging environmental pollutants, pose a potential threat to ecosystem health due to their persistence and capacity to adsorb contaminants. Bees, as essential pollinators, are important for agriculture and ecological stability. However, the risks of MPs exposure to bee health require comprehensive evaluation. This review systematically summarizes the potential transmission routes of MPs within bee colonies. It focuses on their adverse effects on bee physiological health, including disruptions to survival, development, gut structure, gut microbial composition, and immune function. The potential influence of MPs on bee feeding behavior and cognitive performance is also discussed. Furthermore, the combined toxic effects of MPs with commonly used pesticides, coexisting pollutants, and pathogens are summarized, emphasizing the complex and multifactorial risks that MPs may pose to both individual bees and colony-level health through multiple pathways and mechanisms. Finally, key challenges in current research are identified, and future directions are proposed, including mechanistic studies of MP-induced ecotoxicity, refined exposure risk assessments, and integrated evaluations of ecological impacts. This review provides a scientific foundation for bee health protection and MP-related environmental risk assessment.

     

  • 塑料的广泛应用虽然便利了现代生活,但由此产生的微塑料污染正对全球生态系统和农业生产造成深远影响。微塑料(Microplastics,MPs)是由大型塑料废弃物降解形成的尺寸小于5 mm的颗粒,包括生产过程中产生的初级微塑料和由塑料垃圾降解而成的次级微塑料。微塑料不仅难以自然降解,还因其较大的比表面积易吸附环境污染物,从而成为潜在的毒性载体,威胁生态系统健康。蜜蜂是重要的授粉昆虫,对维持生态多样性和农业生产具有至关重要的作用。近年来研究发现,微塑料已渗透到蜜蜂的生存环境,通过花粉、水源和空气等途径进入蜜蜂体内,影响其生理功能和免疫代谢,威胁其健康和行为。本综述总结了蜜蜂的微塑料暴露途径,分析了微塑料对蜜蜂生理健康和行为的影响,探讨了微塑料与其他污染物及病原体联合效应,并对未来研究微塑料毒性的方向进行了简要展望,旨在为蜜蜂保护及生态保护策略的制定提供科学依据。

    微塑料是一种日益受到关注的环境污染物,指尺寸小于5 mm的塑料颗粒、纤维或碎片。根据其来源,可分为两类:初级微塑料和次级微塑料。初级微塑料是在生产过程中制造的微小颗粒,常用作化妆品和牙膏等产品的填充剂(Browne et al.,2011);次级微塑料则是由大型塑料废弃物在自然环境中逐渐降解形成的(Murphy et al.,2016;Auta et al.,2017)。

    微塑料的独特理化特性对生态环境产生了显著影响。其微小尺寸和较大比表面积使其容易吸附如重金属和有机污染物等环境污染物(Andrady,2011)。此外,微塑料因其难以降解的特性得以长期存在于环境中,对生态系统构成持续威胁(Guo et al.,2020)。微塑料主要由尼龙(Polyamide,PA)、腈纶(Polyacrylonitrile,PAN)、聚乙烯(Polyethylene,PE)、聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(Polyethylene terephthalate,PET)、聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯(Polymethyl methacrylate,PMMA)、聚丙烯(Polypropylene,PP)、聚苯乙烯(Polystyrene,PS)和聚氯乙烯(Polyvinyl chloride,PVC)等高分子化合物组成,尽管降解速度极为缓慢,但在物理作用,如机械磨损、土壤翻耕、水体扰动和化学作用,如紫外光辐射、冻融循环的影响下,其表面可能会发生氧化和裂解,形成更小的颗粒并释放塑料添加剂、残余塑料单体等有害物质(Andrady,2011;Prata et al.,2020)。这种持久性使微塑料能够通过食物链逐步积累,对包括蜜蜂在内的生物体健康构成潜在威胁。

    微塑料的来源可以分为直接和间接两种类型。直接来源包括工业生产过程中使用的化工原材料,如轮胎、纺织品、化妆品和油漆等(Thacharodi et al.,2023;Zhang et al.,2024)。在工业制造过程中,塑料颗粒的泄漏和不当处理会导致这些微塑料进入环境。例如,化妆品中的微塑料微珠作为填充剂或增稠剂,在使用过程中释放进入生活废水(Murphy et al.,2016),进一步污染水体和环境。工业废水和生活污水即便经过污水处理厂处理后,也可能残留微塑料颗粒,并通过地表径流,对自然环境造成污染。间接来源即次级微塑料,主要来自塑料垃圾在自然环境中的降解。由于我国垃圾分类处理体系尚不完善,许多塑料垃圾难以有效地集中回收利用,多被直接丢弃。在自然环境中由于机械磨损、光照氧化、冻融分解等物理化学作用下,以及植物根系、动物肠道和微生物代谢等生物过程作用下,这些塑料逐渐破碎成微小颗粒,最终形成次级微塑料(de Souza Machado et al.,2018;Guo et al.,2020)。这些次级微塑料通过累积进一步加重环境污染,威胁生态系统的健康。

    微塑料广泛存在于土壤、水体和空气中,并能通过食物链累积(de Souza Machado et al.,2018;Prata et al.,2020)。在土壤环境中,其直接来源主要包括农业生产中使用的污泥、有机肥、塑料地膜以及温室材料等。其中,污水处理厂处理后产生的污泥常含有微塑料,当被用作土壤改良剂时,便成为重要的微塑料输入源(Duis and Coors,2016;Horton et al.,2017)。间接来源则包括未妥善处理的塑料垃圾,这些垃圾在被用作农田肥料或经处理后的废水、固体残留物用于灌溉时释放微塑料(Yang et al.,2021)。由于农业活动的复杂性,土壤成为除垃圾填埋场外最容易受到微塑料污染的陆地环境之一(Nizzetto et al.,2016)。

    水体是微塑料的重要汇集地,通过地表径流、污水排放和工业废水等途径进入河流、湖泊和海洋(Auta et al.,2017)。大部分海洋微塑料来源于陆地,塑料通过风力、河流输送和人类活动,如捕鱼和海洋抛弃,进入海洋后逐渐降解成微塑料。据估算,全球70%至80%的塑料废弃物残留在海洋中,对水生生物和生态系统构成严重威胁(Alimi et al.,2018)。空气中的微塑料浓度相对较低,但其传播范围最为广泛。微塑料颗粒主要来源于扬尘、工业排放和垃圾焚烧,通过风力迁徙,跨区域扩散并沉降到土壤或水体中。这些颗粒不仅影响空气质量,还可能通过呼吸作用被生物体吸收(Wright and Kelly,2017),已有在人体的鼻腔、咽喉、气管以及肺部等呼吸系统中检测到微塑料颗粒(Amato-Lourenço et al.,2022;Jenner et al.,2022)。

    微塑料能够通过食物链进入多种生物体内(Thacharodi et al.,2023)。在海洋生态系统中,微塑料常附着于藻类等水生植物表面,被浮游生物摄食后,进一步在鱼类等捕食者体内逐级富集(曹龙海等,2023)。在陆地生态系统中,土壤中的微塑料能够被蚯蚓Eisenia fetida摄取,造成肠道组织受损并引发肠道微生物群落变化(Wang et al.,2019);在果蝇Drosophila melanogaster、家蚕Bombyx mori、蚊子Culex quinquefasciatus等昆虫体内也检测到了微塑料的积累(Muhammad et al.,2021;Liu et al.,2022a;Li et al.,2024)。近年来,越来越多的证据显示,微塑料不仅存在于胃肠道,还能穿越生理屏障,进入多种组织和器官。在人体内,已在食道、胃、小肠等消化系统检测到微塑料颗粒(Yan et al.,2022),它们能够通过肠道的吸收作用进入血液、淋巴等循环系统和肾脏、膀胱等泌尿系统(Ding et al.,2023;Pironti et al.,2023;Yang et al.,2023)。尺寸较小的微塑料颗粒可能会穿透生殖屏障进入生殖系统,人的子宫、羊水、胎盘(Sun et al.,2024)、精液(Montano et al.,2023)和睾丸(Zhao et al.,2023)中均已检测到微塑料颗粒。此外,微塑料还被发现广泛分布于免疫系统相关的组织中,包括脾脏、淋巴结和外周免疫细胞(Huang et al.,2023;Pinheiro et al.,2023),以及内分泌器官如甲状腺、肾上腺、胰腺和性腺(Das,2023)。更为重要的是,有研究表明微塑料可穿越血脑屏障进入脑组织(Yang et al.,2004;Liu et al.,2022b),并可能在脑部毛细血管中局部聚集与滞留(Huang et al.,2025),显示其在中枢神经系统中的潜在分布能力。

    微塑料可对生物体健康产生危害。微塑料具有高比表面积,易吸附氧化性污染物并诱导生成释放活性氧,从而引发氧化应激反应。该反应已在斑马鱼Danio rerio、轮虫Brachionus koreanus和小鼠Mus musculus等多种生物中被广泛验证(Lu et al.,2016;Jeong et al.,2016;Deng et al.,2017)。微塑料可干扰细胞内能量平衡,导致代谢功能紊乱,表现为摄食减少、生长迟缓、繁殖力下降(Choi et al.,2020),在小鼠体中引起乳酸脱氢酶增加及肝脏功能受损(Deng et al.,2017)。此外,微塑料还可能诱导神经毒性,影响行为表现和神经系统稳定(Farrell and Nelson,2013;Desforges et al.,2015;Barboza et al.,2018),引起水生动物的游泳活性减弱、停滞时间延长等异常行为(Bringer et al.,2020;Chen et al.,2020)。微塑料还可穿透细胞膜,滞留于组织及循环系统内,干扰细胞结构与信号通路,如破坏衣藻Chlamydomonas reinhardtii细胞表面的多糖合成及解毒机制(Lagarde et al.,2016)。

    微塑料由于在土壤、水源和空气等环境中广泛分布,可通过多种途径进入蜂群(图 1)。蜜蜂在采集花蜜、花粉和水的过程中,可能将残留在植物上的微塑料颗粒带回蜂巢。此外,研究表明微塑料可以被植物根部吸收,随后转移到地上部分,累积在植物的维管系统及细胞间隙(Liu et al.,2022c)。这些微塑料颗粒可能通过植物组织进入花蜜和花粉(Li et al.,2020),被蜜蜂采集后带回蜂巢,对巢内其他蜜蜂、幼虫和贮存于巢房内的花蜜、花粉造成污染(Alma et al.,2023)。在养蜂管理中,塑料制品的使用也是微塑料进入蜂群的一个潜在来源(Al Naggar et al.,2021)。养蜂人员穿戴的合成纤维纺织品、在操作过程中使用的饲喂器、隔王栅、巢门防逃片等塑料工具可能释放微塑料颗粒,这些颗粒随蜜蜂活动扩散至巢内(Cortés-Corrales et al.,2024)。在高度城市化或工业化的地区,空气中飘浮的微塑料浓度较高,这使得通过空气接触微塑料成为蜜蜂的主要暴露途径之一。

    图  1  微塑料在蜜蜂及蜂群中的传播
    Fig.  1  Transmission pathways of microplastics in bees and colonies
    下载: 全尺寸图片

    Rodrigues等(2024)通过分析来自巴西不同景观区域的意大利蜜蜂样本,证实微塑料广泛存在于蜜蜂的生存环境中,表明蜜蜂能够在多样化生态环境中接触并携带微塑料。随后有研究进一步在蜂蜜、花粉、蜂蜡以及蜜蜂体表中检测到微塑料颗粒的存在(Schiano et al.,2024)。Edo等(2021)首次在蜜蜂体内鉴定出微塑料颗粒,并发现其主要富集于中肠和后肠部位。微塑料颗粒可进一步转移至血淋巴、气管、马氏管,甚至单眼和复眼等组织(Al Naggar et al.,2023;Pasquini et al.,2024)。值得注意的是,Pasquini等(2024)的研究表明,直径为1~5 μm的微塑料颗粒能够通过血淋巴系统在蜜蜂大脑中积累,可能对神经系统产生潜在影响。

    微塑料暴露对蜜蜂生理健康的影响涵盖多个方面,包括生存和发育、肠道功能、以及免疫功能等(表 1)。

    表  1  微塑料对蜜蜂的毒理效应
    Table  1  Toxic effects of microplastics on bees
    类型
    Type
    实验对象
    Test organisms
    微塑料种类
    MP types
    暴露时间(d)
    Exposure duration
    影响
    Effects
    参考文献
    References
    在蜂群内的传播
    Spread within bee colonies
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PA、PAN、PE、PET、PP、PS、PVC - 蜜蜂通过养蜂用具、采集植物和土壤污染等多途径暴露于MPs中;从城市到农场均有检出;种类包含PA等7种。Honeybees are exposed to MPs through multiple pathways including beekeeping equipment, contaminated flora and soil, with MPs detected across urban to agricultural settings; seven polymer types including polyamide (PA) were identified. Edo et al.,2021;Cortés-Corrales et al.,2024;Schiano et al.,2024
    MF
    (50 mg/L)
    30 MPs能够残留在蜜蜂的角质层、消化道、大脑,以及幼虫、蜂蜜和蜂蜡中。MPs accumulate in multiple honeybee tissues including exoskeletons, digestive tracts, and brains, across developmental stages such as larvae, and within hive products like honey and beeswax. Alma et al.,2023;
    PS、PMMA(0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    2 Pasquini et al.,2024
    无刺蜂
    Melipona quadrifasciata
    PP
    (0.1~2.6 particles/mL)
    - 所有采样点取得样品均含MPs;城市化较高的区域检测到浓度较高。MPs were detected in all sampled sites, with significantly higher concentrations observed in areas exhibiting elevated urbanization levels. Rani-Borges et al.,2024
    对蜜蜂健康的影响
    Impact on the health of bees
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PS
    (10 μg/mL)
    14 MPs会降低进食率和体重。Exposure to MPs reduces honeybee feeding rates and body weight. Al Naggar et al.,2023
    PE
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    1、7 高浓度MPs影响蜜蜂对蔗糖的持续反应能力。High-concentration MPs impair honeybees' ability to respond consistently to sucrose stimuli in a concentration-dependent manner. Balzani et al.,2022
    PS
    (25 mg/L)
    7、21 MPs会导致线粒体形态异常,干扰ATP生成和呼吸,影响相关代谢途径。MPs exposure correlates with mitochondrial abnormalities, reduced ATP synthesis, and altered metabolic pathways in honeybees. 尤米懿,2024
    PS、PMMA
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    10 MPs暴露后表皮结构、化合物改变,但不被守卫蜂区分。MPs exposure modifies cuticular ultrastructure and chemical profiles in honeybees, without triggering discrimination by guard bees. Ferrante et al.,2024
    2 MPs能够渗透并积聚在蜜蜂脑内。MPs penetrate and accumulate in honeybee brain tissues. Pasquini et al.,2024
    对蜜蜂健康的影响
    Impact on the health of bees
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PS(10-7~
    10-3 μg/mL)
    15 MPs导致肠道中菌群数量降低,对病原体的易感性增加;氧化损伤、解毒和免疫相关的基因表达改变。MPs exposure correlates with reduced gut microbiota abundance and heightened pathogen susceptibility, concurrently with altered gene expression linked to oxidative damage, detoxification, and immune responses. Wang et al.,2022
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    21 An et al.,2025
    PS
    (25、50 mg/L)
    Li et al.,2025
    PE(10-5、10-4、10-3 particles/mL) 15 MPs表面能够富集菌群从而导致肠道微生态失调。MPs surfaces mediate selective enrichment of core microbiota, driving gut dysbiosis. Zhu et al.,2024
    PS
    (10、100 mg/L)
    1、2 蜜蜂对含MPs的蔗糖溶液无偏好或回避;消耗无MPs的溶液更快。Bees showed neither preference for nor avoidance of the sucrose solution containing MPs; they consumed the MPs-free solution faster. Buteler et al.,2022
    无刺蜂
    Partamona helleri
    PS、PET(12.5 mg/L) 24 幼虫期受感染后成虫体重增加;浆细胞和原血细胞的比例变化;行走及社交行为发生改变。Following larval-stage contaminant exposure, adult bees exhibited elevated body weight; altered proportions between plasmatocytes and prohemocytes; and modified walking patterns and social interactions. Viana et al.,2023
    熊蜂
    Bombus atratus
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    4 暴露导致肠道的空泡化、核浓缩和细胞致密化。Exposure led to vacuolization, nuclear condensation, and pyknosis in the gut. Boeing et al.,2024
    注:MF,聚酯微纤维;MPs,微塑料;PA,尼龙;PAN,氨纶;PE,聚乙烯;PET,聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯;PMMA,聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯;PP,聚丙烯;PS,聚苯乙烯;PVC,聚氯乙烯。本表格中标注暴露时间的研究均于实验室内完成,微塑料暴露途径为经口饲喂。Note: MF, polyester microfibers; MPs, microplastics; PA, polyamide; PAN, polyacrylonitrile; PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PMMA, polymethyl methacrylate; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride. Studies indicating exposure durations in this table were all conducted in laboratory settings, with microplastics administered via oral gavage.

    微塑料暴露对蜜蜂的生存率、食物摄入量和体重的影响尚无统一结论,现有研究结果存在一定差异(表 1)。Deng等(2021)报道,蜜蜂暴露于100 mg/L浓度的聚苯乙烯微塑料(PS-MP)后,其存活率降至对照组的25%;而Buteler等(2022)研究发现,短期(1 d或7 d)急性暴露PS-MP并未显著影响蜜蜂的存活率。Wang等(2021)的研究显示,暴露于25 µm PS-MP微球时,仅在较低浓度(0.5 mg/L)组观察到食物摄入量减少,但体重未受显著影响。也有研究表明,蜜蜂连续两周暴露于10 µg/mL的碎片状PS-MP(93 ± 25 µm)后,食物摄入量和体重分别下降约16%和18.5%,且该效应与微塑料的浓度和粒径无明显相关性(Al Naggar et al.,2023)。PS-MP颗粒的高比表面积及不规则形状可对蜜蜂消化道造成物理损伤,从而干扰营养物质的正常消化与吸收。

    微塑料可影响蜜蜂幼虫的生长发育。幼虫在高浓度微塑料环境中发育、封盖率和羽化率均显著降低,并伴随发育迟缓和成蜂寿命较短(Viana et al.,2023;尤米懿,2024)。Ferrante等(2024)报道了微塑料对蜜蜂表皮层发育的影响,其研究显示微塑料暴露后蜜蜂表皮角质层增厚,同时表皮化合物丰度下降表明微塑料暴露可引起蜜蜂表皮化合物组成的变化,不同类型和浓度的微塑料影响程度和方式上存在差异。

    中肠是蜜蜂进行食物消化和营养吸收的主要器官,后肠则是肠道菌群主要定殖部位(Engel et al.,2012)。蜜蜂肠道菌群在营养代谢、免疫调节和神经内分泌等方面与寄主密切相关(Zheng et al.,2017;Jones et al.,2018)。已有研究表明,微塑料暴露可对蜜蜂肠道组织健康和菌群稳态造成多重干扰(Li et al.,2025)。

    组织学研究表明,蜜蜂暴露于PS-MP环境中,其中肠会出现肠腔扩张、细胞间隙增宽和围食膜脱落等病理变化(Deng et al.,2021;Boeing et al.,2024;An et al.,2025;Li et al.,2025)。当蜜蜂暴露于纳米级PS颗粒时,中肠细胞发生空泡化和溶解等损伤(Wang et al.,2022)。暴露于100 µm聚乙烯微塑料(PE-MP)后,观察到蜜蜂肠道壁变薄、基底膜破裂,且微塑料更倾向于在后肠累积(Zhu et al.,2024)。

    微塑料暴露影响蜜蜂肠道菌群结构。暴露PS显著降低了蜜蜂肠道菌群的多样性,并引起与氧化损伤、解毒和免疫相关基因的表达改变(Al Naggar et al.,2023;An et al.,2025;Li et al.,2025)。不同粒径(100 nm、1 μm、10 μm)的PS-MP可黏附于肠道菌群,尤其是在100 nm处理组中,乳酸菌和双歧杆菌的相对丰度明显降低,表明微塑料可通过改变有益菌群的丰度干扰肠道正常功能(Wang et al.,2022)。Zhu等(2024)进一步发现,暴露PE-MP可导致细菌聚集于微塑料颗粒表面,从而引发肠道微生物群落紊乱,更易受到蜂房哈夫尼菌Hafnia alvei感染,死亡率显著增加。综上所述,微塑料暴露不仅改变了肠道菌群的结构与多样性,还可能通过削弱宿主免疫防御系统,提升病原体易感性,最终对蜜蜂健康造成潜在威胁。

    微塑料暴露会影响蜜蜂的免疫调节与解毒机制。Al Naggar等(2023)的研究发现,PS-MP暴露会引起意大利蜜蜂体内氧化损伤、解毒与免疫相关基因的表达变化,这可能与微塑料引起的肠道菌群多样性降低有关。PS颗粒暴露会干扰免疫信号通路(如MAPK通路)的基因表达,并影响肠道内CYP9Q1和GstS3等解毒和免疫相关基因的表达水平(Wang et al.,2021;Deng et al.,2021)。

    PE-MP暴露显著降低了蜜蜂的免疫防御功能,导致其对条件致病菌H. alvei的易感性增加,表现为感染后死亡率显著升高(Zhu et al.,2024)。类似地,PS-MP暴露可显著改变关键免疫相关基因(如CYP9Q1、GSTD1、hymenoptaecin、defensin-1和PGRP-S2)的表达,并削弱蜜蜂对以色列急性麻痹病毒(Israeli acute paralysis virus,IAPV)的抗性(Deng et al.,2021)。综合以上研究,微塑料通过多种机制干扰蜜蜂的免疫系统,包括改变肠道微生态、影响关键免疫与解毒基因的表达,以及扰乱免疫信号通路,从而削弱蜜蜂的整体防御能力并增加其对病原体的易感性。

    微塑料不仅损害蜜蜂的生理健康,还可能对其行为产生不利影响。

    取食行为是蜜蜂维持正常生理活动的关键,直接关系到蜜蜂的营养摄入、生长发育和生存率。已有研究在花蜜、花粉和蜂蜡中检出微塑料颗粒(Edo et al.,2021)。若蜜蜂的食物基质中存在微塑料,可能会通过改变食物的物理特性对取食行为造成影响。Buteler等(2022)发现,蜜蜂摄取含有微塑料的蔗糖溶液时,其取食速度减缓,推测这与微塑料改变溶液黏度有关,从而影响了蜜蜂的取食行为。

    微塑料能够在蜜蜂采集过程中被摄入(Edo et al.,2021),并可能通过物理或化学作用干扰蜜蜂生理功能,进而影响取食量。Al Naggar(2023)的研究表明,意大利蜜蜂在暴露于10 μg/mL的PS-MP条件下,其取食量显著降低。Ferrante等(2024)发现,不同浓度的PS和PMMA微塑料单独暴露对意大利蜜蜂的取食量无显著影响,但在联合暴露条件下呈现出加和效应。Balzani等(2022)的研究则发现,在低浓度PE-MP暴露反而增加了意大利蜜蜂的取食量,而高浓度暴露则显著降低蜜蜂对蔗糖溶液的持续反应能力,显示出浓度依赖效应。

    蜜蜂作为高度社会化的昆虫,其正常的外出采集、归巢以及群体交流行为依赖于复杂的学习和记忆过程(Robinson,1992)。Pasquini等(2024)的研究发现,暴露于PS和PMMA微塑料后,蜜蜂在蔗糖响应性、学习和记忆能力方面均出现显著下降,且PS-MP的影响更为明显。在PS-MP蔗糖溶液50 mg/L浓度下,蜜蜂的记忆能力下降幅度可达40%。Buteler等(2022)观察到,PS微塑料暴露后的蜜蜂对无微塑料溶液的消耗速度更快,但未表现出明显的偏好或回避行为,暗示其认知调控可能受损。Balzani等(2022)也发现,高浓度PE微塑料不仅降低了蜜蜂的生存率,也削弱了其对蔗糖溶液的持续反应能力,这与学习记忆能力密切相关。上述结果提示,微塑料可能通过对中枢神经系统造成机械、细胞结构或生化功能的干扰,进而影响蜜蜂的认知行为。

    微塑料不仅能够直接影响蜜蜂的生理功能和行为表现,还因其高比表面积和强吸附能力,成为重金属、农药和病原微生物等多种环境污染物的潜在载体(Kutralam-Muniasamy et al.,2021)。这种吸附特性使微塑料在生态系统中具有“污染物载体”的作用,增强了微塑料与其他污染物的联合毒性效应,可能对蜜蜂健康构成叠加甚至协同的毒性效应(表 2)。微塑料影响了蜜蜂的免疫系统功能,进而增加了其对农药或病原体的易感性(Deng et al.,2021)。

    表  2  微塑料及复合污染对蜜蜂的毒性影响
    Table  2  Toxic effects of microplastics and co-contamination on bees
    实验对象
    Test organisms
    微塑料种类
    MP types
    暴露时间(d)
    Exposure duration
    复合污染物
    Co-contaminants
    影响
    Effects
    参考文献
    References
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PA
    (50、500、
    1 000 mg/L)
    6 草甘膦
    Glyphosate
    防御素、膜翅素基因、过氧化氢酶活表达改变。Downregulation of defensin and hymenoptaecin genes, and increased catalase activity. Mitton et al.,2024
    PE
    (50 mg/L)
    20 草甘膦
    Glyphosate
    生存率和伸吻率显著下降。Survival rate and sucrose responsiveness significantly declined. 李强等,2023
    PS(10-7~10-3 μg/mL) 15 蜂房哈夫尼菌
    Hafnia alvei
    MPs诱导的菌群失调使Lactobacillus等保护性菌群减少,免疫防御机制失效,导致H. alvei在肠道和血淋巴中大量繁殖。The dysbiosis induced by MPs resulted in a reduction in protective bacteria such as Lactobacillus, thereby causing the failure of immune defense mechanisms and leading to the proliferation of H. alvei in both the gut and hemolymph. Wang et al.,2022
    PE(10-5、10-4、10-3 particles/mL) Zhu et al.,2024
    PS
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    14 四环素
    Tetracycline
    肠道菌群多样性降低。MPs exposure mediated gut microbial dysbiosis. Wang et al.,2021
    PS
    (0.1、1、10、
    100 mg/L)
    21 以色列急性麻痹病病毒
    Israeli acute paralysis virus
    MPs暴露增加了对以色列急性麻痹病病毒易感性。MPs exposure enhanced the susceptibility to Israeli acute paralysis virus. Deng et al.,2021
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    21 氟吡呋喃酮
    Flupyradifurone
    PS与氟吡呋喃酮联合暴露引发乳杆菌丰度降低,补充后可提升蜜蜂存活率。Co-exposure to PS and flupyradifurone caused a significant decrease in Lactobacillus abundance, while supplementation improved honeybee survival. An et al.,2025
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    30 东方蜜蜂微孢子虫、氟吡呋喃酮
    Nosema ceranae、Flupyradifurone
    PS和氟吡呋喃酮联合暴露下N. Ceranae增殖增加;应激反应导致中肠再生细胞减少、核基质发生变化。Co-exposure to PS and flupyradifurone increased N. ceranae proliferation, with stress responses reducing regenerative cell nests and altering the nuclear matrix in the midgut. Tiritelli et al.,2024
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    - - 蜂箱小甲虫
    Aethina tumida
    使用无纺布湿巾作为A. tumida防御措施会导致蜂巢内及蜂产品中MPs含量增加。Non-woven microfiber wipes for A. tumida management significantly increased microplastic accumulation in beehives and bee products. Buteler et al.,2022
    中华蜜蜂
    Apis cerana cerana
    PS
    (0.5、5、
    10 mg/mL)
    14 氟氯氰菊酯
    Cyfluthrin
    PS单独暴露未显著增加蜜蜂死亡率,但可降低氟氯氰菊酯引发的致死率;两者联合暴露上调解毒基因P450 9E2和Cyp9Q3,下调免疫基因abaecin。PS exposure alone showed no significant effect on honeybee mortality but reduced cyfluthrin-induced lethality; co-exposure up-regulated detoxification genes P450 9E2 and Cyp9Q3 while down-regulating immune gene abaecin. Xue et al.,2025
    注:本表格中标注暴露时间的研究均于实验室内完成,微塑料暴露途径为经口饲喂。Note: Studies indicating exposure durations in this table were all conducted in laboratory settings, with microplastics administered via oral gavage.

    微塑料可与环境中的农药、抗生素等化学污染物产生协同作用,导致蜜蜂暴露后的毒性效应显著增强。李强等(2023)的研究发现,蜜蜂同时暴露于微塑料与草甘膦时,存活率和对蔗糖的敏感性均显著下降,毒性效应明显强于单一暴露。Mitton等(2024)的研究进一步证实了这一协同效应:单独暴露于MPs或草甘膦农药时,仅下调defensin-1基因表达,而两者联合暴露下调hymenoptaecin基因,并增强过氧化氢酶活性,表明微塑料和草甘膦存在协同免疫抑制作用。类似地,Tiritelli等(2024)在研究东方蜜蜂微孢子虫Nosema ceranae的过程中发现,联合暴露于微塑料和氟吡呋喃酮(Flupyradifurone,FPF)的蜜蜂体内,微孢子虫的增殖显著增加,说明微塑料可通过削弱宿主免疫功能,加重病原感染程度,从而放大联合毒性效应。An等(2025)发现联合暴露于0.5 μm PS-MP和FPF可引发蜜蜂肠道菌群紊乱,但补充特定菌株乳酸菌Lactobacillus可提升存活率。

    微塑料可通过吸附环境中的农药改变其生物可利用性,并引发协同毒性效应。单独暴露于氟氯氰菊酯(Cyfluthrin,Cy)会显著增加中华蜜蜂Apis cerana cerana死亡率,而微塑料虽未直接导致死亡,与Cy共同作用时却可通过吸附作用降低Cy的急性毒性。但两者联合暴露显著加剧了蜜蜂肠道损伤和咽下腺发育抑制,并诱导解毒基因P450 9e2和Cyp9Q3的过度表达,同时显著抑制免疫基因(如abaecin、apidaecin)表达,削弱抗菌防御能力(Xue et al.,2025)。

    Wang等(2021)的研究则聚焦于微塑料与抗生素联合暴露的影响。结果显示,PS-MP单独暴露虽对蜜蜂致死率较低,但已显著降低其肠道微生物多样性并改变核心菌群结构;与抗生素四环素联合暴露后,微塑料对肠道菌群的破坏效应进一步增强,同时伴随抗氧化、解毒及免疫相关基因表达的显著改变。值得注意的是,四环素可大幅抑制蜜蜂肠道中的原有有益菌群,为耐药或潜在有害菌的扩增提供条件,从而导致菌群失衡和免疫防御能力下降,加剧微塑料的毒性作用,显著提高蜜蜂的死亡风险。

    除了与农药、抗生素等污染物产生协同毒性外,微塑料还可能通过增强蜜蜂对病原体的易感性,进一步加剧感染风险(Al Naggar et al.,2024;Bashir et al.,2024)。Deng等(2021)的研究发现,蜜蜂摄入微塑料,尤其是0.5 μm的PS-MP后,可在中肠内累积,并显著提高蜜蜂对以IAPV的易感性。此外,微塑料的存在促进了IAPV在蜜蜂体内的增殖,从而加快其传播和感染进程。Wang等(2022)的研究发现,暴露于100 nm PS的蜜蜂,其对H. alvei的感染率显著升高,死亡率较对照组高出5倍。当PS-MP与田间实际浓度的FPF(4.38 mg/L)联合暴露时,蜜蜂对东方蜜蜂微孢子虫的感染率明显上升,微孢子虫在体内增殖速度加快,导致蜜蜂在实验早期即出现大量死亡(Tiritelli et al.,2024)。

    此外,Buteler等(2023)还观察到,经常被蜂农用于防治蜂房小甲虫Aethina tumida的无纺布湿巾可能成为潜在的微塑料暴露源。蜜蜂在巢内啃咬湿巾后将纤维带回巢房,导致蜂巢环境及蜂产品中微塑料含量增加,虽然该类微纤维的急性毒性较低,但其在蜂群中可能造成的慢性暴露效应及其与病原体的潜在交互作用仍需进一步关注。

    微塑料可通过多种作用机制干扰蜜蜂的生理功能与行为表现。微塑料具备一定的物理穿透能力,可在蜜蜂的中肠、后肠等组织中累积并破坏肠道结构,引发细胞病变与组织损伤(Wang et al,2022;Al Naggar et al.,2023;Boeing et al.,2024;An et al.,2025;Li et al.,2025)。部分颗粒还可穿越血淋巴屏障,在脑组织中沉积,并与学习记忆能力下降相关联,提示其可能干扰中枢神经系统功能(Pasquini et al.,2024)。已有研究观察到微塑料暴露后蜜蜂体内抗氧化相关基因表达发生变化,伴随抗氧化酶活水平的波动,提示其可能引发氧化压力反应,扰乱线粒体功能与能量代谢稳态(尤米懿,2024)。此外,微塑料可破坏蜜蜂的肠道微生态平衡,导致有益菌群丰度下降,干扰肠道屏障功能,并诱导免疫相关基因表达下调或紊乱,从而降低其对病原体的抵抗力,显著增加感染风险(Wang et al.,2022;Zhu et al.,2024)。微塑料还可作为农药、抗生素及病原体的载体,放大其毒性效应,表现为更高的死亡率、更严重的组织损伤和更明显的免疫抑制(Deng et al.,2021;Wang et al.,2021;Buteler et al.,2022;Wang et al.,2022;李强等,2023;Mitton et al.,2024;Tiritelli et al.,2024;Zhu et al.,2024;An et al.,2025;Xue et al.,2025)。综上,微塑料通过物理损伤、代谢干扰、免疫抑制和联合毒性等机制,危害蜜蜂健康,并可能进一步影响蜂群稳定(Al Naggar et al.,2024;Bashir et al.,2024;Rodrigues et al.,2025)。

    微塑料污染通过直接和间接途径对蜜蜂及农业生态系统造成深远影响,尤其体现在授粉者健康与授粉服务功能方面。研究表明,微塑料可附着在植物的花粉、花瓣和果实表面,干扰正常授粉过程,进而影响植物繁殖效率(Shah et al.,2023)。例如,Carvallo和Munoz-Michea(2024)发现,聚丙烯碎片阻塞了花粉与雌蕊的接触,显著降低种子产量,提示微塑料可能威胁依赖授粉繁衍的植物种群。

    蜜蜂作为主要授粉者,在授粉过程中不可避免地接触并摄入微塑料。Schiano等(2024)在意大利南部的养蜂场,于蜜蜂及蜂蜜、蜂蜡等产品中检测到微塑料颗粒和微纤维,显示微塑料不仅威胁蜜蜂健康,也可能影响蜂产品质量及授粉效率。Rani-Borges等(2024)在巴西本土蜜蜂Melipona quadrifasciata所产蜂蜜中检测到0.1~2.6颗粒/mL的微塑料,间接说明微塑料可通过食物链传递,对人类食品安全构成潜在威胁。

    此外,微塑料还可通过改变土壤理化性质、干扰微生物群落结构,并与其他污染物产生协同毒性,破坏农业生态系统的稳定性(Jin et al.,2022)。蜜蜂种群数量减少不仅削弱了授粉服务,也可能进一步威胁依赖授粉的植物群落,最终影响生态系统功能与生物多样性。

    随着微塑料污染的加剧,其在生态系统中的积累与影响日益受到关注。蜜蜂作为重要的授粉昆虫,正面临着严重的微塑料污染威胁。已先后在多个野外样本的生存环境中检出微塑料,在中国六省份的田野采样中也检测到蜜蜂体内存在微塑料颗粒(Deng et al.,2021)。但在不同地域间,微塑料环境浓度的差异可能导致蜜蜂暴露水平和生物效应的显著差异,例如城市区域污染浓度通常高于乡村地区(Bashir et al.,2024)。系统理解微塑料对蜜蜂健康的影响,需依托实验研究与野外观测的有机结合。前者有助于精确定量微塑料对蜜蜂生理、行为及分子水平的毒性效应,后者则能从生态学视角评估蜜蜂在自然条件下的真实暴露水平与响应模式,揭示微塑料对蜜蜂行为、生理和遗传特征的长期影响(Bashir et al.,2024)。此外,目前关于微塑料与其他污染物(如农药、抗生素)及病原体之间的联合毒性研究仍较为有限。未来研究应关注多种应激源叠加作用下的作用机制,深入探讨其对蜜蜂个体健康、群体稳定及生态系统服务功能的潜在威胁。这对于全面评估微塑料的生态风险,推动环境管理与蜜蜂保护策略的科学制定具有重要意义。

  • 图  1   微塑料在蜜蜂及蜂群中的传播

    Fig.  1   Transmission pathways of microplastics in bees and colonies

    下载: 全尺寸图片

    表  1   微塑料对蜜蜂的毒理效应

    Table  1   Toxic effects of microplastics on bees

    类型
    Type
    实验对象
    Test organisms
    微塑料种类
    MP types
    暴露时间(d)
    Exposure duration
    影响
    Effects
    参考文献
    References
    在蜂群内的传播
    Spread within bee colonies
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PA、PAN、PE、PET、PP、PS、PVC - 蜜蜂通过养蜂用具、采集植物和土壤污染等多途径暴露于MPs中;从城市到农场均有检出;种类包含PA等7种。Honeybees are exposed to MPs through multiple pathways including beekeeping equipment, contaminated flora and soil, with MPs detected across urban to agricultural settings; seven polymer types including polyamide (PA) were identified. Edo et al.,2021;Cortés-Corrales et al.,2024;Schiano et al.,2024
    MF
    (50 mg/L)
    30 MPs能够残留在蜜蜂的角质层、消化道、大脑,以及幼虫、蜂蜜和蜂蜡中。MPs accumulate in multiple honeybee tissues including exoskeletons, digestive tracts, and brains, across developmental stages such as larvae, and within hive products like honey and beeswax. Alma et al.,2023;
    PS、PMMA(0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    2 Pasquini et al.,2024
    无刺蜂
    Melipona quadrifasciata
    PP
    (0.1~2.6 particles/mL)
    - 所有采样点取得样品均含MPs;城市化较高的区域检测到浓度较高。MPs were detected in all sampled sites, with significantly higher concentrations observed in areas exhibiting elevated urbanization levels. Rani-Borges et al.,2024
    对蜜蜂健康的影响
    Impact on the health of bees
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PS
    (10 μg/mL)
    14 MPs会降低进食率和体重。Exposure to MPs reduces honeybee feeding rates and body weight. Al Naggar et al.,2023
    PE
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    1、7 高浓度MPs影响蜜蜂对蔗糖的持续反应能力。High-concentration MPs impair honeybees' ability to respond consistently to sucrose stimuli in a concentration-dependent manner. Balzani et al.,2022
    PS
    (25 mg/L)
    7、21 MPs会导致线粒体形态异常,干扰ATP生成和呼吸,影响相关代谢途径。MPs exposure correlates with mitochondrial abnormalities, reduced ATP synthesis, and altered metabolic pathways in honeybees. 尤米懿,2024
    PS、PMMA
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    10 MPs暴露后表皮结构、化合物改变,但不被守卫蜂区分。MPs exposure modifies cuticular ultrastructure and chemical profiles in honeybees, without triggering discrimination by guard bees. Ferrante et al.,2024
    2 MPs能够渗透并积聚在蜜蜂脑内。MPs penetrate and accumulate in honeybee brain tissues. Pasquini et al.,2024
    对蜜蜂健康的影响
    Impact on the health of bees
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PS(10-7~
    10-3 μg/mL)
    15 MPs导致肠道中菌群数量降低,对病原体的易感性增加;氧化损伤、解毒和免疫相关的基因表达改变。MPs exposure correlates with reduced gut microbiota abundance and heightened pathogen susceptibility, concurrently with altered gene expression linked to oxidative damage, detoxification, and immune responses. Wang et al.,2022
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    21 An et al.,2025
    PS
    (25、50 mg/L)
    Li et al.,2025
    PE(10-5、10-4、10-3 particles/mL) 15 MPs表面能够富集菌群从而导致肠道微生态失调。MPs surfaces mediate selective enrichment of core microbiota, driving gut dysbiosis. Zhu et al.,2024
    PS
    (10、100 mg/L)
    1、2 蜜蜂对含MPs的蔗糖溶液无偏好或回避;消耗无MPs的溶液更快。Bees showed neither preference for nor avoidance of the sucrose solution containing MPs; they consumed the MPs-free solution faster. Buteler et al.,2022
    无刺蜂
    Partamona helleri
    PS、PET(12.5 mg/L) 24 幼虫期受感染后成虫体重增加;浆细胞和原血细胞的比例变化;行走及社交行为发生改变。Following larval-stage contaminant exposure, adult bees exhibited elevated body weight; altered proportions between plasmatocytes and prohemocytes; and modified walking patterns and social interactions. Viana et al.,2023
    熊蜂
    Bombus atratus
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    4 暴露导致肠道的空泡化、核浓缩和细胞致密化。Exposure led to vacuolization, nuclear condensation, and pyknosis in the gut. Boeing et al.,2024
    注:MF,聚酯微纤维;MPs,微塑料;PA,尼龙;PAN,氨纶;PE,聚乙烯;PET,聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯;PMMA,聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯;PP,聚丙烯;PS,聚苯乙烯;PVC,聚氯乙烯。本表格中标注暴露时间的研究均于实验室内完成,微塑料暴露途径为经口饲喂。Note: MF, polyester microfibers; MPs, microplastics; PA, polyamide; PAN, polyacrylonitrile; PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PMMA, polymethyl methacrylate; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride. Studies indicating exposure durations in this table were all conducted in laboratory settings, with microplastics administered via oral gavage.

    表  2   微塑料及复合污染对蜜蜂的毒性影响

    Table  2   Toxic effects of microplastics and co-contamination on bees

    实验对象
    Test organisms
    微塑料种类
    MP types
    暴露时间(d)
    Exposure duration
    复合污染物
    Co-contaminants
    影响
    Effects
    参考文献
    References
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    PA
    (50、500、
    1 000 mg/L)
    6 草甘膦
    Glyphosate
    防御素、膜翅素基因、过氧化氢酶活表达改变。Downregulation of defensin and hymenoptaecin genes, and increased catalase activity. Mitton et al.,2024
    PE
    (50 mg/L)
    20 草甘膦
    Glyphosate
    生存率和伸吻率显著下降。Survival rate and sucrose responsiveness significantly declined. 李强等,2023
    PS(10-7~10-3 μg/mL) 15 蜂房哈夫尼菌
    Hafnia alvei
    MPs诱导的菌群失调使Lactobacillus等保护性菌群减少,免疫防御机制失效,导致H. alvei在肠道和血淋巴中大量繁殖。The dysbiosis induced by MPs resulted in a reduction in protective bacteria such as Lactobacillus, thereby causing the failure of immune defense mechanisms and leading to the proliferation of H. alvei in both the gut and hemolymph. Wang et al.,2022
    PE(10-5、10-4、10-3 particles/mL) Zhu et al.,2024
    PS
    (0.5、5、
    50 mg/L)
    14 四环素
    Tetracycline
    肠道菌群多样性降低。MPs exposure mediated gut microbial dysbiosis. Wang et al.,2021
    PS
    (0.1、1、10、
    100 mg/L)
    21 以色列急性麻痹病病毒
    Israeli acute paralysis virus
    MPs暴露增加了对以色列急性麻痹病病毒易感性。MPs exposure enhanced the susceptibility to Israeli acute paralysis virus. Deng et al.,2021
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    21 氟吡呋喃酮
    Flupyradifurone
    PS与氟吡呋喃酮联合暴露引发乳杆菌丰度降低,补充后可提升蜜蜂存活率。Co-exposure to PS and flupyradifurone caused a significant decrease in Lactobacillus abundance, while supplementation improved honeybee survival. An et al.,2025
    PS
    (50 mg/L)
    30 东方蜜蜂微孢子虫、氟吡呋喃酮
    Nosema ceranae、Flupyradifurone
    PS和氟吡呋喃酮联合暴露下N. Ceranae增殖增加;应激反应导致中肠再生细胞减少、核基质发生变化。Co-exposure to PS and flupyradifurone increased N. ceranae proliferation, with stress responses reducing regenerative cell nests and altering the nuclear matrix in the midgut. Tiritelli et al.,2024
    意大利蜜蜂
    Apis mellifera ligustica
    - - 蜂箱小甲虫
    Aethina tumida
    使用无纺布湿巾作为A. tumida防御措施会导致蜂巢内及蜂产品中MPs含量增加。Non-woven microfiber wipes for A. tumida management significantly increased microplastic accumulation in beehives and bee products. Buteler et al.,2022
    中华蜜蜂
    Apis cerana cerana
    PS
    (0.5、5、
    10 mg/mL)
    14 氟氯氰菊酯
    Cyfluthrin
    PS单独暴露未显著增加蜜蜂死亡率,但可降低氟氯氰菊酯引发的致死率;两者联合暴露上调解毒基因P450 9E2和Cyp9Q3,下调免疫基因abaecin。PS exposure alone showed no significant effect on honeybee mortality but reduced cyfluthrin-induced lethality; co-exposure up-regulated detoxification genes P450 9E2 and Cyp9Q3 while down-regulating immune gene abaecin. Xue et al.,2025
    注:本表格中标注暴露时间的研究均于实验室内完成,微塑料暴露途径为经口饲喂。Note: Studies indicating exposure durations in this table were all conducted in laboratory settings, with microplastics administered via oral gavage.
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  • 收稿日期:  2025-02-13
  • 修回日期:  2025-06-02
  • 接受日期:  2025-06-04

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